Annotations (26)
“Devaraya II welcomed talented Muslim courtiers and enlisted 200 Muslim officers into his army. He ordered a Quran placed before his throne so Muslims could perform obeisance without sinning. Carvings show Muslims in daily life. Borders were guarded by Muslim cavalry mercenaries and Portuguese gunners. This influx changed the military with advanced strategies and increased cavalry use. The king deliberately hybridized his kingdom by importing talent from rivals.”
Strategy & Decision Making · Leadership & Management · Business & Entrepreneurship
DUR_ENDURING
Hired enemy talent to transform capabilities
“At the Battle of Talikota, the Sultan's cannons were placed in 3 lines which could stagger fire. One line could fire while others reloaded, creating almost continuous blanket of fire. The effect was devastating. They had learned from the defeat 40 years earlier when synchronized firing created a gap. The staggered line solution eliminated the vulnerability.”
Operations & Execution · Strategy & Decision Making
DUR_ENDURING
Three staggered lines created continuous fire
“At the Battle of Raichur, Sultan's cannons fired all at once in a devastating volley, killing many and forcing Vijayanagara troops to retire. But because they all fired at once, they all had to reload at the same time, creating a gap. When Krishnadeva rallied and counterattacked, the cannons could not summon another volley. The synchronized firing created a synchronized vulnerability.”
Strategy & Decision Making · Operations & Execution
DUR_ENDURING
Synchronized firing created synchronized reload gap
“Tughluq ordered every citizen of Delhi to relocate 1,200 kilometers south to Devagiri. Thousands died on the journey. Ibn Battuta found Delhi almost a desert with empty streets and no smoke from chimneys. Soon after, Tughluq changed his mind and forced the population to march back. Indecisive reversal of massive decisions destroys both the decision and the organization.”
Leadership & Management · Strategy & Decision Making
DUR_ENDURING
Reversing huge decisions destroys twice
“India was never a fortress sealed by mountains and sea. The sea was a busy highway connecting India to Persia, Red Sea, Cambodia, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, and China. Indian pepper flavored Roman meals, and an Indian Buddha bronze was found in a 9th-century Viking grave in Sweden. The apparent barriers were actually the most active trade routes.”
History & Geopolitics · Strategy & Decision Making · Economics & Markets
DUR_ENDURING
Apparent barriers were actually highways
“Krishnadeva marched into Bijapur with overwhelming force and stayed until the Sultan surrendered. The Sultan refused to come out of hiding. Krishnadeva's army demolished the city for firewood and drank reservoirs dry. Eventually water ran out and Krishnadeva was forced to leave. He had not captured the Sultan but made his point: Vijayanagara was now the strongest power. This resounding victory would lead to the empire's collapse by reminding the sultans they needed to stand together.”
Strategy & Decision Making · Psychology & Behavior
DUR_ENDURING
Victory that humiliates unites enemies
“Through Ramaraya's arrogance, Vijayanagara had united its enemies against it. The sultans sealed their alliance with marriages and exchanged forts as dowries to settle territorial disputes. They were now marching south together. Ramaraya marched with 70,000 cavalry and 700,000 foot soldiers. Despite banding together, the sultans were no match in numbers. But the unified response to arrogance would destroy the empire.”
Strategy & Decision Making · Psychology & Behavior · Leadership & Management
DUR_ENDURING
Arrogance united fragmented enemies into coalition
“Muhammad bin Tughluq introduced copper coins to replace silver, making the economy less vulnerable to silver supply fluctuations. But copper coins were easy to counterfeit. People melted down copper objects in their homes to make coins. The currency value crashed and silver coins had to be reintroduced at enormous cost. The reform failed because the counterfeit barrier was too low.”
Economics & Markets · Operations & Execution
DUR_ENDURING
Easy to counterfeit means currency collapses
“It was the inability of the Deccan's ancient rulers to join together against their common enemy that led to the fall of their order at the hands of the Kiljis and Tughluqs. When the Bahmani Sultanate emerged, its leaders failed to rein in dissension and the kingdom was on its way to disintegration. The rebel sultans continued by feuding with one another, but Ramaraya's ambition reminded them they were all destined to suffer as losers.”— Manu Pillai
Strategy & Decision Making · History & Geopolitics
DUR_ENDURING
Inability to unite against common enemy repeats
“Krishnadeva published political maxims: A king should improve harbors and encourage commerce so horses, elephants, precious gems, sandalwood, pearls are freely imported. He understood securing access to strategic imports was a fundamental duty of kingship. Without Arabian horses, his army could not compete. Harbor investment was defense investment.”— Krishnadeva Raya
Strategy & Decision Making · Economics & Markets
DUR_ENDURING
Harbor investment secures strategic imports
“The Western Ghats mountains block clouds from the southwest monsoon. Land west of the mountains is vivid tropical green with lagoons and mangroves, while the Deccan Plateau beyond is dry and arid. The same weather system creates opposite conditions on either side of a single geographic barrier.”
Biology, Ecology & Systems · Strategy & Decision Making
DUR_ENDURING
Single barrier creates opposite conditions on each side
“Muslim rulers were pragmatic and had no desire to unnecessarily aggravate Hindu subjects. Hindu worship was never banned. Pockets of resistance were fiercest among tribal peoples in remote areas, but in cities there is little evidence of uprisings. Historical sources contain more information about conflicts between Muslim rulers and other Muslims than any conflict with Hindu citizens.”
Leadership & Management · History & Geopolitics · Psychology & Behavior
DUR_ENDURING
Pragmatism over ideology maintains power
“The granite terrain of Vijayanagara is 3 to 3.5 billion years old, formed during Earth's earliest crust formation. These rocks witnessed the first life, dinosaurs, and human evolution while softer rocks eroded around them. The city was built on one of the most ancient and stable surfaces on Earth.”
Strategy & Decision Making · History & Geopolitics
DUR_ENDURING
Choose the foundation that outlasts competitors
“When Ramaraya was killed at Talikota, the Hindus according to custom fled in utmost disorder. 100,000 were slain during action and pursuit. Ramaraya's brothers fled back to the capital, gathered all treasure they could, piled it onto oxcarts, and fled, leaving the city without leaders, without army, and without money to pay off enemies. Law and order broke down immediately. The city's own citizens rioted and its own soldiers rampaged through streets stealing whatever was left.”
Leadership & Management · Psychology & Behavior
DUR_ENDURING
Leaders fled with treasure; internal collapse followed
“Muhammad Ghuri conquered territory to settle permanently, not just raid. His general captured Delhi in 1193, and Muhammad ordered all districts to acknowledge Islam. This shift from raiding to occupation created the 300-year Muslim kingdom of the Delhi Sultanate. The difference between looting and building determines whether conquest becomes empire.”
Strategy & Decision Making · Leadership & Management
DUR_ENDURING
Settle to build empire, not raid for loot
“The Delhi Sultanate held off repeated Mongol invasions that had killed 10-40 million in China and destroyed Baghdad. The Sultans, who arrived as conquerors, became the only thing stopping the Khans from riding south across India and committing the atrocities they inflicted on China. The invader became the defender against a worse invasion.”
History & Geopolitics · Strategy & Decision Making
DUR_ENDURING
Conqueror becomes protector against worse conqueror
“Something in Muhammad bin Tughluq's harsh character had been holding the empire together. After his death, the Sultanate began to disintegrate. All newly conquered lands rose up in rebellion. A war of succession tore the empire into multiple factions with nobles setting up independent states. The tyrant's removal revealed he had been the empire's binding force.”
Leadership & Management · Psychology & Behavior
DUR_ENDURING
Harsh leader's removal revealed his binding role
“The Sangama brothers built Vijayanagara as a formidable fortress on granite hills with the Tungabhadra River protecting the north. Seven citadels and walls enclosed each other. The walls covered 650 square kilometers. Areas between walls were filled with boulders called horse stones, designed to disrupt cavalry movement while soldiers rained arrows from ramparts. Defense was designed into the city's geography.”
Strategy & Decision Making · Operations & Execution
DUR_ENDURING
Seven walls with boulder fields between layers
“Conflicts between Vijayanagara and the Bahmani Sultanate occurred due to practical economic matters: access to resources, supply lines, and trade routes. One bitter issue was the Raichur Doab, a fertile triangle with deposits of iron and diamonds. Other conflicts were over rich river deltas and western coast ports that controlled traffic with the Muslim world and horse imports from Arabia, Persia, and Central Asia.”
Strategy & Decision Making · Economics & Markets
DUR_ENDURING
Religious war was really about resources and trade
“With connections to the Muslim world, the Bahmanis had the advantage. The Sultan was known as Ashvapati, Lord of Horses, while Vijayanagara kings were Narapati, Lord of Men, alluding to armies of massed infantry. The Bahmani early adoption of gunpowder technology put them in a strong position. Despite being larger and wealthier, Vijayanagara often paid tribute due to the Bahmanis' cavalry armies backed by cannons.”
Strategy & Decision Making · Technology & Engineering
DUR_ENDURING
Tech and network advantage beat size and wealth
Mental Models (25)
Accumulation of Unique Assets
Strategic ThinkingSystematic collection and documentation of unique information creates defensible competitive positio
In Practice: Colin Mackenzie's four-decade documentation project in India
Demonstrated by Leg-pc-001
Build on the Most Stable Foundation
Strategic ThinkingChoose to build on elements that have demonstrated longest durability. Vijayanagara was built on 3.5
In Practice: Description of the geological foundation of Vijayanagara
Demonstrated by Leg-pc-001
Control Point Creates Asymmetry
Systems ThinkingA single point of control in a system can create opposite outcomes on either sid
In Practice: Geographic description of monsoon effects on either side of mountain range
Demonstrated by Leg-pc-001
Inversion of Assumptions
Decision MakingWhat appears to be a barrier is often a highway; what looks like isolation is often connection. India was never sealed off by mountains and sea—these were its busiest trade routes connecting it to Rome, China, Indonesia, and the Viking world. The inversion reveals that your assumptions about what limits you may be wrong, and those apparent constraints may be your greatest assets. The company that seems isolated from suppliers may have a unique vertical integration opportunity. The market that seems too small may be too small for competitors but perfect for you.
In Practice: Contrarian description of India's geographic openness versus perceived isolation
Demonstrated by Leg-pc-001
Raid vs. Occupy
Strategic ThinkingThe fundamental choice in expansion: extract value and leave, or invest to build lasting control. Mu
In Practice: Description of Muhammad Ghuri's strategic shift to permanent occupation
Demonstrated by Leg-pc-001
Pragmatic Tolerance
PsychologyRulers who tolerate subjects' differences maintain control better than those who force uniformity.
In Practice: Description of Muslim rulers' pragmatic approach to Hindu subjects
Demonstrated by Leg-pc-001
Threat Succession
TimeToday's threat becomes tomorrow's defense against a greater threat. The Delhi Su
In Practice: Delhi Sultanate's role in defending India from Mongol invasions
Demonstrated by Leg-pc-001
Counterfeit Barrier
EconomicsCurrency system fails when the cost of counterfeiting is lower than the value gain.
In Practice: Muhammad bin Tughluq failed copper currency reform
Demonstrated by Leg-pc-001
Reversal Destruction
Decision MakingReversing a massive decision destroys more value than the original bad decision. Tughluq forced Delhi's entire population to march 1,200km south, then reversed and forced them to march back. Thousands died both ways. The reversal signaled indecision, destroyed credibility, and wasted resources twice. In business: launching then killing products publicly, hiring then firing in waves, entering then exiting markets rapidly. Each reversal compounds the destruction. Better to make a mediocre decision and commit than to oscillate between good decisions.
In Practice: Tughluq's forced relocation of Delhi and subsequent reversal
Demonstrated by Leg-pc-001
Tyrant as Binding Agent
Systems ThinkingThe harsh leader you hate may be the structural element holding the system toget
In Practice: Immediate collapse of Delhi Sultanate after Tughluq's death
Demonstrated by Leg-pc-001
Defense in Depth
Strategic ThinkingMultiple independent barriers with no single point of failure. Vijayanagara had seven concentric wal
In Practice: Description of Vijayanagara's fortification architecture
Demonstrated by Leg-pc-001
Resource Wars Disguised as Ideological Conflict
EconomicsWars framed as religious or ideological are often about resources and economics.
In Practice: Economic drivers behind Vijayanagara-Bahmani conflicts
Demonstrated by Leg-pc-001
Technology and Network Trump Size and Wealth
Strategic ThinkingSmaller power with better technology and external network connections can dominate larger, wealthier
In Practice: Description of military asymmetry between Vijayanagara and Bahmanis
Demonstrated by Leg-pc-001
Infrastructure Enables Scale
EconomicsPopulation density and economic activity are limited by infrastructure, not just demand.
In Practice: Vijayanagara population growth enabled by irrigation infrastructure
Demonstrated by Leg-pc-001
Import Rival's Talent to Transform Capability
Strategic ThinkingDeliberately hire talent from competitors to gain asymmetric advantages they possess. Devaraya II we
In Practice: Devaraya II's deliberate hiring of Muslim talent and removal of barriers
Demonstrated by Leg-pc-001
Infrastructure for Strategic Imports is Defense
Strategic ThinkingInvestment in ports, distribution, and trade relationships to secure strategic inputs is a form of n
In Practice: Krishnadeva's maxim about improving harbors to encourage imports
Demonstrated by Leg-pc-001
Synchronized Operations Create Synchronized Vulnerability
Systems ThinkingCoordinating for maximum impact creates maximum exposure during the reset period
In Practice: Description of synchronized cannon fire at Battle of Raichur
Demonstrated by Leg-pc-001
Staggered Capacity Eliminates Downtime
Systems ThinkingDivide capacity into N independent units and phase their operation so one is alw
In Practice: Description of staggered cannon fire at Battle of Talikota
Demonstrated by Leg-pc-001
Victory That Humiliates Unites Enemies
PsychologyDemonstrating overwhelming superiority can push fragmented rivals past the coordination threshold.
In Practice: Krishnadeva's campaign against Bijapur and its unifying effect on enemies
Demonstrated by Leg-pc-001
Arrogance Lowers Coordination Costs
PsychologyRivals who normally can't coordinate will unite when facing a common threat that humiliates them all.
In Practice: Ramaraya's insults driving the sultans to unite against Vijayanagara
Demonstrated by Leg-pc-001
Leadership Vacuum Triggers Internal Collapse
Systems ThinkingLoss of leadership causes internal collapse faster than external attack. After T
In Practice: Vijayanagara's internal collapse after leadership fled following defeat
Demonstrated by Leg-pc-001
Symbolic Destruction vs. Wholesale Destruction
PsychologyVictors target symbols of power more than populations.
In Practice: Archaeological evidence of selective destruction in Vijayanagara
Demonstrated by Leg-pc-001
Hub Failure Cascades Through Network
Systems ThinkingLoss of the economic hub cascades through the entire network. When Vijayanagara
In Practice: Cascading decline of surrounding towns after Vijayanagara's fall
Demonstrated by Leg-pc-001
Recurring Failure Pattern
TimeCivilizations fall when fragmented powers fail to unite against common threat. T
In Practice: Manu Pillai's analysis of the recurring coordination failure pattern
Demonstrated by Leg-pc-001
Fragmentation Creates Entry Points
TimeWeakness from empire collapse creates opportunity for new entrants to gain footh
In Practice: British East India Company's foothold during Vijayanagara's fragmentation
Demonstrated by Leg-pc-001
Connective Tissue (8)
Vijayanagara built on 3.5 billion year old granite, the most ancient and stable surface on Earth
The city was built on granite formed during Earth's earliest crust formation, rocks that witnessed the first life, dinosaurs, and human evolution while softer rocks eroded around them. The builders chose the foundation that had outlasted geological epochs. This parallels strategic choices in business: building on the most stable and enduring foundations—the unchanging aspects of human nature, fundamental economic principles, or proven technologies—rather than chasing fashionable but unstable trends. What endures through geological time teaches what endures through economic cycles.
Description of the geological foundation on which the empire was built
Western Ghats mountains block monsoon clouds, creating opposite conditions on either side of a single barrier
The same weather system creates vivid tropical green with lagoons west of the mountains and dry arid land on the Deccan Plateau to the east. A single geographic barrier creates asymmetric outcomes from the same input. This mirrors how control points in markets, information networks, or distribution systems create asymmetric outcomes. The company controlling the channel can create abundance on one side (for partners) and scarcity on the other (for competitors). The pattern appears in App Store economics, payment rails, media distribution, and any system with a chokepoint that can be selectively permeable.
Geographic description of how mountain ranges affect climate
Vijayanagara's seven concentric walls with boulder fields between layers disrupting cavalry while archers fired from ramparts
The city was defended by seven citadels and walls enclosing each other over 650 square kilometers. Between wall layers were areas filled with boulders called horse stones, designed to disrupt cavalry movement while soldiers on ramparts rained arrows down. Each layer forced attackers to slow, bunch up, and expose themselves to fire from superior positions. This is defense in depth: no single point of failure, multiple independent barriers, and asymmetric exposure (defender safe, attacker exposed). It parallels modern defensive strategies in cybersecurity (defense in depth), business (multiple moats), and competitive positioning (layered advantages that must all be overcome).
Description of the city's fortification architecture
Sultan's cannons at Raichur fired all at once, creating devastating impact but synchronized reload gap that enabled counterattack
At the Battle of Raichur, the Sultan's cannons fired simultaneously in one devastating volley, killing many and forcing retreat. But because they all fired at once, they all had to reload at the same time, creating a gap during which they were vulnerable. When the enemy rallied and counterattacked, no cannons were ready. Maximum synchronization for impact created synchronized vulnerability. This appears in manufacturing (batch processing creates idle time), software releases (big bang deploys create risk windows), and sales (quota periods create feast-famine cycles). The solution, discovered 40 years later, was staggered capacity.
Description of artillery tactics at the Battle of Raichur
Sultan's three staggered cannon lines at Talikota: one fires while others reload, creating continuous blanket of fire
At the Battle of Talikota 40 years after Raichur, the Sultan arranged cannons in three lines that could stagger fire. One line fired while the other two reloaded, creating almost continuous fire. They had learned from the synchronized firing mistake. The staggered line solution eliminated the reload gap vulnerability. This is the solution to synchronized downtime in any system: divide capacity into N independent units, phase their operation so one is always active while others reset. It appears in manufacturing (multiple lines), customer service (shift staggering), software deployment (rolling releases), and financial markets (market makers with staggered inventory rotation).
Description of improved artillery tactics at the Battle of Talikota
Indus Valley Civilization's undecoded script: names of cities, kings, deeds lost beneath the sands forever
The Indus Valley Civilization created stamp seals and tablets with hundreds of distinct symbols, but if this was writing, it has never been decoded. The names of their cities, their kings, their deeds, the lives of everyday people—all lost forever. We only have names later people gave to the ruins: Mohenjo-daro means 'mound of dead men' in Sindhi. Knowledge that is not transferred, preserved in multiple forms, or made legible to others dies with its creators. This is the documentation problem in companies: the critical knowledge that lives only in one person's head, the undocumented system that becomes archaeological mystery when the creator leaves.
Discussion of the Indus Valley Civilization's mysterious writing system
Mongol armies killing 10% of world's population; Delhi Sultanate became the barrier that stopped them reaching India
Genghis Khan's Mongol invasions killed an estimated 10% of the world's population—10 to 40 million in China, the sacking of Baghdad, destruction of the Muslim intellectual world. Muslim Turks fled as refugees to India. The Delhi Sultanate, who had arrived as conquerors, became the only force stopping the Mongols from doing to India what they did to China. The invader became the defender against a worse invasion. This is the pattern of established disruption becoming the incumbent defending against newer disruption, or how today's threat becomes tomorrow's defense against a greater threat. Microsoft feared IBM, then became the giant that open source feared, then became the defender against Google's monopoly ambitions.
Description of the Mongol threat and Delhi Sultanate's defensive role
Krishnadeva's poetry: 'just as travelers ferried to the far shore without noticing boat's movements, so too does time pass quickly without our realizing it'
King Krishnadeva wrote in his epic poem Amuktamalyada: 'Just as travelers ferried to the far shore without even noticing the movements of the boat, so too does time pass quickly without our realizing it. And in this trance, life passes us by.' The metaphor of the ferry captures how we reach the end without perceiving the journey. Time's passage is continuous but imperceptible, like the boat's motion on smooth water. This is the trap of gradualism: the slow drift that only becomes visible when you compare endpoints. It's why companies miss disruption (incremental changes invisible until the gap is insurmountable), why careers drift (daily motion imperceptible until decades pass), why civilizations decline (each generation adapts to slightly worse conditions until collapse).
Excerpt from Krishnadeva's epic poem about the passage of time
Key Figures (9)
Krishnadeva Raya
3 mentionsKing of Vijayanagara
Abdur Razak
2 mentionsPersian Ambassador from Timurid Samarkand
Muhammad bin Tughluq
2 mentionsSultan of Delhi
Bukka
1 mentionsCo-founder of Vijayanagara Empire
Harihara
1 mentionsCo-founder of Vijayanagara Empire
Colin Mackenzie
1 mentionsBritish East India Company Officer, Cartographer, Antiquarian
Devaraya II
1 mentionsKing of Vijayanagara
Muhammad Ghuri
1 mentionsWarlord, Founder of Muslim Rule in North India
Genghis Khan
1 mentionsEmperor of the Mongol Empire